Table 3 Scale development process—ten main limitations

1

Sample characteristics limitations

85

81

 Homogeneous and/or convenience sample—limitations of generalization

67

64

 Small sample size

18

17

2

Methodological limitations

35

33.2

 Cross-sectional methodology

20

19

 Self-reporting methodology

9

8.5

 Web-based survey

6

5.7

3

Psychometric limitations

32

30.4

 Lack of a more robust demonstration of the construct validity and/or reliability

21

20

 Inadequate choose of the instruments or variables to be correlated with the variable of the study

6

5.7

 Factor analysis limitations

5

4.7

4

Qualitative research limitations

6

5.6

 Deductive approach to scale development

2

1.9

 Lack of a more robust literature review

1

1

 Subjective analysis

1

0.9

 Content validity was not formally assessed

1

0.9

 Recruitment of a larger number of interviewers

1

0.9

5

Missing data

3

2.8

6

Social desirability bias

2

1.9

7

Items limitations

2

1.9

 Items ambiguous or difficult to answer

1

1

 None of the items are reverse-scored

1

0.9

8

Brevity of the scale

2

1.9

9

Difficult to control all variables

1

0.9

10

Lack of a manualized instructions

1

0.9